Glaciation

Most existing estuaries originated during the Holocene epoch with the flooding of river-eroded or glacially scoured valleys when the sea level began to rise about 10,000-12,000 years ago.

In physical geography, a fjord ( FYORD, fee-ORD; also spelled fiord, a variant most common in New Zealand English) is a long, relatively narrow sea inlet with steep sides or cliffs in a valley created by a former glacier, which has since become inundated with water

An inlet is a typically long and narrow indentation of a shoreline such as a small arm, cove, bay, sound, fjord, lagoon or marsh, that leads to an enclosed larger body of water such as a lake, estuary, gulf or marginal sea.

A cirque (French: [siʁk]; from the Latin word circus) is an amphitheatre-like valley formed by glacial erosion

A moraine is any accumulation of unconsolidated debris (regolith and rock), sometimes referred to as glacial till, that occurs in both currently and formerly glaciated regions and that has been previously carried along by a glacier or ice sheet

A kettle (also known as a kettle hole, kettlehole, pothole, or, in parts of the United Kingdom, pingo) is a depression or hole in an outwash plain formed by retreating glaciers or draining floodwaters

A kame, or knob, is a glacial landform, an irregularly shaped hill or mound composed of sand, gravel and till that accumulates in a depression on a retreating glacier, and is then deposited on the land surface with further melting of the glacier

A crevasse is a deep crack that forms in a glacier or ice sheet

Concordia (Balti: ཅོནྕོརདིཨ།; Urdu: کونکورڈیا) is the confluence of the Baltoro Glacier and the Godwin-Austen Glacier in the Karakoram mountain range of Pakistan

The Fedchenko Glacier (Russian: Ледник Федченко) or the Vanch-Yakh Glacier (Tajik: Пиряхи Ванҷях) is a large glacier in the Yazgulem Range, Pamir Mountains, of north-central Gorno-Badakhshan province, Tajikistan

The Aargletschers, literally "Aare-Glaciers", are a system of glaciers located at the sources of the Aare river in the Bernese Alps, Switzerland

The Taylor Glacier (77°44′S 162°10′E) is a glacier in Antarctica about 35 nautical miles (65 km; 40 mi) long, flowing from the plateau of Victoria Land into the western end of Taylor Valley, north of the Kukri Hills

Grasshopper Glacier is in the Beartooth Mountains, Custer National Forest, Montana, U.S. The glacier is within the Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness, a part of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

Hooker Glacier is one of several glaciers close to the slopes of Aoraki / Mount Cook in the Southern Alps of New Zealand

The Aneto glacier (Aragonese: Glaciar d'Aneto, Spanish : Glaciar del Aneto) is a glacier located on the northwestern flank of Aneto in the Pyrenees

The Scott Glacier (85°45′S 153°0′W) is a major glacier, 120 nautical miles (220 km; 140 mi) long, that drains the East Antarctic Ice Sheet through the Queen Maud Mountains to the Ross Ice Shelf

Challenger Glacier is a tidewater glacier on the north side of Heard Island in the southern Indian Ocean

Bell Glacier (66°42′S 124°54′E) is a glacier draining northward into Maury Bay immediately eastward of Blair Glacier

Benson Glacier (76°49′S 162°12′E) is a glacier about 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) long, draining the east part of Flight Deck Névé and continuing east between Fry Glacier and Mackay Glacier into the north part of Granite Harbour where it forms a floating tongue.

Allison Glacier (53°04′S 73°24′E) is an ice stream on the west side of Heard Island in the southern Indian Ocean

Adams Glacier is situated on the northwest flank of Mount Adams, a 12,281-foot (3,743 m) stratovolcano in the U.S. state of Washington

Russell Glacier (Danish: Russells Gletscher) is a glacier in the Qeqqata municipality in central-western Greenland

The Salmon Glacier is a glacier located ~25 km (16 mi) north of Stewart, British Columbia, and Hyder, Alaska, just on the Canadian side of the border

The Matterhorn Glacier (German: Matterhorngletscher) is a glacier of the Pennine Alps, located at the base of the north face of the Matterhorn (4478m above the sea), south of Zermatt

Blue Glacier is a large glacier located to the north of Mount Olympus in the Olympic Mountains of Washington

Russell Glacier is in the U.S. state of Oregon

The Davidson Glacier is a large valley glacier near Haines, Alaska that finds its source in the Chilkat Range.

Schmidt Glacier (53°3′S 73°24′E) is a glacier, 0.7 nautical miles (1.3 km) long, flowing west from Baudissin Glacier between Mount Drygalski and North West Cornice, on the west side of Heard Island in the southern Indian Ocean

Honeycomb Glacier is located in the Glacier Peak Wilderness in the U.S. state of Washington

Harbour Glacier (64°49′S 63°26′W) is a through glacier 3 nautical miles (6 km) long and 1.5 nautical miles (3 km) wide, lying on the northwest side of Wiencke Island and extending in a northeast direction from Port Lockroy to the cove 1 nautical mile (2 km) east of Noble Peak, in the Palmer Archipel

Edmunds Glacier is located on Mount Rainier in the U.S. state of Washington

Hayes Glacier in Antarctica enters the southeast part of the Weddell Sea about 17 miles (27 km) west-southwest of Dawson-Lambton Glacier

The Cook Ice Cap or Cook Glacier (French: Calotte Glaciaire Cook or Glacier Cook) is a large ice cap in the Kerguelen Islands in the French Southern Territories zone of the far Southern Indian Ocean.

The Darwin Glacier (79°53′S 159°00′E) is a large glacier in Antarctica

Drygalski Glacier (64°43′S 60°44′W) is a broad glacier, 18 nautical miles (33 km; 21 mi) long which flows southeast from Herbert Plateau through a rectangular re-entrant to a point immediately north of Sentinel Nunatak on the east coast of Graham Land, Antarctica.

The Outer Lands is the prominent terminal moraine archipelagic region off the southern coast of New England in the United States

Evidence for glaciation is mainly based on the recognition of diamictite that is interpreted to be of glacial origin.

The Marinoan glaciation (also known as the Varanger glaciation, or Elatina glaciation) was a period of worldwide glaciation during the Cryogenian period.

A firth is generally the result of ice age glaciation and is very often associated with a large river, where erosion caused by the tidal effects of incoming sea water passing upriver has widened the riverbed into an estuary

Hubbard Glacier (Lingít: Sít' Tlein) is a glacier located in Wrangell-St.

The Rhône Glacier (German: Rhonegletscher, Walliser German: Rottengletscher, French: glacier du Rhône, Italian: ghiacciaio del Rodano) is a glacier in the Swiss Alps and the source of the river Rhône and one of the primary contributors to Lake Geneva in the far eastern end of the Swiss canton of Valais.

Brüggen Glacier, also known as Pío XI Glacier named by Spanish explorers after a Pope, is in southern Chile and is the largest western outflow from the Southern Patagonian Ice Field.

The Höllentalferner is a glacier in the western Wetterstein Mountains.

Baby Glacier is a glacier located in the U.S. state of Montana in Glacier National Park.

Tyndall Glacier or Geike Glacier is one of the largest glaciers in the Southern Patagonian Ice Field.

Reid Glacier is an 11-mile-long (18-kilometer) glacier in the U.S. state of Alaska.

Lyell Glacier is in the Sierra Nevada of California.

Jackson Glacier is approximately the seventh largest of the remaining 25 glaciers in Glacier National Park located in the US state of Montana.

Laënnec Glacier (64°12′S 62°13′W) is a glacier 3 nautical miles (6 km) long draining the northeast slopes of Stribog Mountains and the northwest slopes of Avroleva Heights, and flowing northeast into Hill Bay on the east side of Brabant Island, in the Palmer Archipelago, Antarctica.

Nordenskiöldbreen (Nordenskiöld Glacier) is a glacier in Spitsbergen, Svalbard.

Bondhusbrea is a glacier in Kvinnherad Municipality in Vestland county, Norway.

Ahern Glacier is in Glacier National Park in the U.S. state of Montana.

Fremont Glacier is located on the southeast slopes of Mount Logan, North Cascades National Park in the U.S. state of Washington.

Frederikshåb Glacier (Greenlandic: Sioqqap Sermia, Danish: Frederikshåb Isblink or Frederikshåb Gletscher) is a glacier on the southwest coast of Greenland in the Sermersooq municipality.

The Schlatenkees is a glacier in the Venediger Group that is in the core zone of the High Tauern National Park, east of the Großvenediger.

Heitō Glacier (69°16′S 39°48′E) is a small glacier draining westward along the south side of Mount Heitō in the southern part of the Langhovde Hills, Queen Maud Land, Antarctica.

McCall Glacier is located in the Goat Rocks region in the U.S. state of Washington.

Śnieżne Kotły (1,175 m (3,855 ft), Czech: Sněžné jámy, German: Schneegruben, literally Snowy Pits, Snowy Cirque, Snowy Cwm) are two glacial cirques situated in Poland in the Sudetes in the Karkonosze National Park.

A fjard (Swedish: fjärd, IPA: [ˈfjæːɖ]) is a broad, shallow inlet formed by receding glaciers.

An esker, eskar, eschar, or os (sometimes called an asar, osar, or serpent kame) is a long, winding ridge of stratified sand and gravel, examples of which occur in glaciated and formerly glaciated regions of Europe and North America.

The terraces formed along the shorelines of an ancient ice-dammed loch that existed during a brief period (some 900-1,100 years in duration) of climatic deterioration, during a much longer period of deglaciation, subsequent to the last main ice age (the Devensian).

Some valleys are formed through erosion by glacial ice.

U-shaped valleys, also called trough valleys or glacial troughs, are formed by the process of glaciation.

A tunnel valley is a U-shaped valley originally cut under the glacial ice near the margin of continental ice sheets such as that now covering Antarctica and formerly covering portions of all continents during past glacial ages.

An outwash plain, also called a sandur (plural: sandurs), sandr or sandar, is a plain formed of glaciofluvial deposits due to meltwater outwash at the terminus of a glacier.

A Rogen moraine, also called ribbed moraine, is a subglacially (i.e. under a glacier or ice sheet) formed type of moraine landform, that mainly occurs in Fennoscandia, Scotland, Ireland and Canada.

In geology, a proglacial lake (ice-marginal lake), is a lake formed either by the damming action of a moraine during the retreat of a melting glacier a glacial ice dam, or by meltwater trapped against an ice sheet due to isostatic depression of the crust around the ice.

A glacier cave is a cave formed within the ice of a glacier.

It takes its name from "the Vat", a pothole of glacial origin that lies upon its course.

It was heavily glaciated during the most recent ice age.

Snow Lake or Lukpe Lawo is a high-altitude glacial basin in the Karakoram mountain range in the Gilgit-Baltistan region of northern Pakistan.

The Kander Neve (German: Kanderfirn) is a 6.6 km (4.1 mi) long glacier (2005) of the Bernese Alps, situated south of Kandersteg in the canton of Bern.

The chain-like arrangement of hills in a chain is a consequence of their collective formation by mountain building forces or ice age earth movements.

Knickpoints reflect different conditions and processes on the river, often caused by previous erosion due to glaciation or variance in lithology.

Many submergent coastlines were formed by the end of the Last Glacial Period (LGP), when glacial retreat caused both global sea level rise and also localised changes to land height.

Plateaus can be formed by a number of processes, including upwelling of volcanic magma, extrusion of lava, and erosion by water and glaciers.

A truncated spur is a spur, which is a ridge that descends towards a valley floor or coastline from a higher elevation, that ends in an inverted-V face and was produced by the erosional truncation of the spur by the action of either streams, waves, or glaciers.

The landscape, dominated by smooth bedrock, bears witness to volcanic activity and subsequent wear due to the Ice Age.

This extinction pulse is typically attributed to the Late Ordovician glaciation, which abruptly expanded over Gondwana at the beginning of the Hirnantian and shifted the Earth from a greenhouse to icehouse climate.

A kame delta (or ice-contact delta, morainic delta) is a glacial landform formed by a stream of melt water flowing through or around a glacier and depositing material, known as kame (stratified sequence of sediments) deposits.

An outwash fan is a fan-shaped body of sediments deposited by braided streams from a melting glacier.

A trim line, also written as trimline, is a clear line on the side of a valley formed by a glacier.

Raised shore platforms in the Hebrides have been identified as strandflats, possibly formed during the Pliocene period and later modified by the Quaternary glaciations.

The result is that the Aran Islands are one of the finest examples of a Glacio-Karst landscape in the world.

Compared to other Arctic archipelagos, Franz Josef Land is highly dissected, as a result of it being heavily glaciated, with a very low ratio of total area to coastline of only approximately 3.6 square kilometers per coastline kilometer.

The Logar Valley is a typical U-shaped glacial valley.